Renewable energy sources are gaining increasing significance in the global pursuit of sustainable development. Among these, biodiesel stands out as a promising alternative to conventional fossil fuels. Biodiesel is typically produced from vegetable oils through a process known as transesterification, which yields fatty acid methyl esters (FAME). Th

Nanocarbon commodities have emerged as revolutionary tools across diverse industries, reshaping the landscape of technology. Fueled by advancements in manufacturing techniques, the production of carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and carbon nanofibers (CNFs) has undergone a paradigm shift, paving the way for unprecedented applications. These remarkable nano-s

Sputtering is a vital technique utilized in the fabrication of advanced thin films. Titanium (Ti) sputtering, namely, has emerged as a favorable method due to its ability to deposit high-quality Ti thin films with precise thickness and composition. The process involves bombarding a Ti target with energetic ions, ejecting atoms that then deposit ont